Let there be no mistake—the comma wields a power far greater than its humble looks might suggest. The punctuation mark is used by many writers as a soft pause to separate words, items, or clauses and can change a sentence’s meaning or tone, depending on how it’s used.

Learning the comma rules for business emails ensures you’re setting the right tone when you’re writing to your boss or an investor—or to anyone else who has an impact on your business—and can eliminate miscommunication. Misplaced commas have also been the centerpiece of some court rulings that have cost businesses millions of dollars.

In this piece, we’ll discuss where to place commas in email salutations, how to use them in business communication, their historical significance, and when to use semicolons instead of commas in emails.

What is comma usage in business communication?

Comma usage in business communication impacts a sentence’s tone or meaning, so proper usage is vital to avoid miscommunication and set clear objectives with your team. Use commas in between a greeting and someone’s name, in between items in a list, or when connecting two independent clauses.

Misplaced commas can also change a sentence’s meaning and in some cases can cost people millions of dollars. In 1872, US lawmakers placed a comma in between “fruits” and “vegetables,” which resulted in tropical produce being imported into the country at no charge, costing taxpayers $2 million at the time (more than $40 million in today’s money).

The comma in communication

One of the most famous examples of how commas can affect communication is the difference between “Let’s eat, grandma” and “Let’s eat grandma.” While this hypothetical statement clearly illustrates how a soft pause can change a sentence’s meaning, there are also real-life examples that illustrate the effect.

The most famous example comes from the Oracle of Delphi:

“You will go you will return never in the battle you will perish.”

This phrase is supposed to be an answer to the question of whether or not to go to war. If you place a comma before “never,” it insinuates that a person will return after the war and should head to battle.

Place the comma after “never,” and the sentence insinuates that the person will not return from the war.

Similarly, the use or omission of an Oxford comma, sometimes called a serial comma, can change how a sentence is read. An Oxford comma is placed after the second-to-last item in a list and before the coordinating conjunction—usually and or or—that precedes the final item.

Different style guides have different rules on whether to use them. That said, the lack of an Oxford comma was once the centerpiece of a US Court of Appeals ruling that resulted in a Maine dairy company losing $5 million.

The court case, O’Connor v. Oakhurst Dairy, came down to a sentence in a state law that stated which job duties were exempt from overtime pay:

The canning, processing, preserving, freezing, drying, marketing, storing, packing for shipment or distribution of:

(1) Agricultural produce;

(2) Meat and fish products; and

(3) Perishable foods.

The court ruled that the omission of a comma between “shipment” and the coordinating conjunction “or” made it unclear whether shipment and distribution were one activity or two. If the state law placed an Oxford comma before or, it would’ve been clear that shipment and distribution of dairy were exempt from overtime pay.

Greetings in business emails

A business email starts with a salutation, and a salutation ends with a comma, right? Wrong. In business emails, the most formal way of ending a salutation is with a colon. So instead of “Dear Mrs. Johnson,” you should write “Dear Mrs. Johnson:” and then continue with the body of the message.

Using a comma at the end of the salutation might not be a faux pas if you have a casual relationship with the person you’re writing. You might write a business email where the utmost formality is not necessary, and in that case, the colon is not required. If you’re unsure, play it safe and practice business email etiquette by ending with a colon.

Openers and names: comma use

A salutation usually has two components: a greeting or an adjective and the name or title of the person you’re addressing.

In the previous example, the salutation is composed of an adjective and a name, and there’s no comma between the two. However, a comma should separate a direct greeting and a person’s name. So if you were to write “Good morning, Mrs. Johnson,” you’d have to place a comma between “Good morning” and “Mrs. Johnson.”

Commas with coordinating conjunctions

The most common coordinating conjunctions are and, or, nor, so, but, yet, and for. We use them to connect elements in a sentence that are grammatically similar, such as two verbs, two nouns, two modifiers, or two independent clauses. A conjunction can be used to start a sentence, in which case it usually shouldn’t be followed by a comma:

Example: But in the last quarter of this year, we’ve seen an increase in consumer activity.

If a coordinating conjunction is placed in a list of two items, there’s no need to use a comma before it:

Example: The departments that had most of the activity were toy stores and gift shops.

If, on the other hand, the conjunction is used before the final element in a list of more than two items, a comma may go immediately before it:

Example: Toys, plastic Christmas trees, and spirits went out of stock.

If a coordinating conjunction joins two independent clauses, put a comma before it:

Example: The suppliers were contacted immediately, so we were able to restock the missing items in time.

When to use semicolons instead of commas

A comma and coordinating conjunction aren’t always the best way to join two independent clauses. In fact, it can cause confusion, and that’s something you want to avoid in a business email.

If you have two independent clauses that each contain a few commas, you should use a semicolon instead of a comma to separate them. For example, your first independent clause might contain an introductory element followed by a comma, and your second independent clause might have a nonessential element that’s between two commas:

Example: In the meantime, the consumers were encouraged to look around other departments; and that’s what, it turned out, led to a small increase in sales of nonseasonal items.

In this case, the coordinating conjunction should have a semicolon in front of it.

Semicolons, commas, and dashes are often interchanged. However, dashes should only be used as a stylistic tool or to offset an appositive, which is a noun or noun phrase that follows another noun to provide more information about the person, place, or thing.

Advanced tips for comma usage

Comma usage isn’t always black and white. For example, while commas are typically used to connect two independent clauses, they should be avoided if the words on either side of the comma can form their own sentence.

Incorrect: “John is ordering pizza, Evelyn is ordering ramen.”

The above example is called a comma splice, and there are three ways to make it grammatically correct.

Add a coordinating conjunction: “John is ordering pizza, and Evelyn is ordering ramen.”

Use a semicolon: “John is ordering pizza; Evelyn is ordering ramen.”

Form two separate sentences: “John is ordering pizza. Evelyn is ordering ramen.”

Comma usage also varies based on the type of modifier you use. Restrictive modifiers, or words that identify or limit the noun they’re modifying, do not require a comma, whereas nonrestrictive modifiers, or words that are not essential to the sentence’s meaning, require a comma.

Restrictive modifier: Neil Armstrong was the first man on the moon.

Nonrestrictive modifier: Neil Armstrong, the astronaut, was the first man on the moon.

Comma rules in business communication FAQs

Is it ever acceptable to start a sentence with a conjunction in business emails?

Starting a sentence with a conjunction is grammatically correct, but some people prefer not to have one at the beginning of a sentence. If you want to use a formal tone, it’s better not to use conjunctions at the start of a sentence. However, more casual conversations can use them.

Should you use a comma or a semicolon in complex sentences?

Use commas in complex sentences that are linked by a conjunction, such as and, but, or or. Semicolons should be used in complex sentences connected by a conjunctive adverb, like however.

Can improper comma usage in business emails lead to misunderstandings?

Yes, improper comma usage can lead to misunderstandings. A comma represents a soft pause, and the placement of that pause can impact the tone or meaning of your sentence.

The post Essential Comma Rules for Business Emails appeared first on Grammarly Blog.

When you spy a verb ending in the letter s—such as dances, fries, or feels—you are looking at that verb in a conjugated (also known as inflected) form. Regular English verbs form the third-person singular simple-present tense by adding –s or –es to their stem or root form.

Here we’ll learn about verbs that end in s, including what they mean in grammar and how to use them correctly.

What are verbs ending in s?

When a regular verb appears in the third-person singular simple-present tense, it takes on an –s ending—unless it ends in ch, s, sh, x, or z, in which case the ending is –es:

• Ahmet cooks so well.
• He knows precisely what ingredients and tools to use.
• The tree next to our subway stop loses its leaves earlier than the others on the block.
• The extension cord that the lamp is plugged in to reaches across the room.

Verb conjugation and verbs with –s

Verbs have more than one essential job in a sentence. On top of describing a specific action (or the existence of a specific feeling or state), they also provide context about the time and conditions of the action they describe and supply or reinforce information about the subject of the sentence.

Verbs communicate these contexts through conjugation: how they change form to show the properties of number, person, tense, voice, and mood. When verbs add the –s ending, they communicate that they are singular in number, third person in person, and simple present in tense. (They are also indicative in mood and active in voice, but those properties are not as relevant to this discussion as the other three.)

Understanding the third-person singular simple-present tense

There is only one conjugation of regular English verbs where the stem form of the verb changes to distinctively show tense, person, and number. That conjugation is the third-person singular form of the simple-present tense, and the change it makes is to add –s or –es. Take a look at this sentence:

She sometimes wishes she had moved to a different neighborhood.

The verb in the sentence is wishes. It agrees in both person (third) and number (singular) with the subject of the sentence, which is the third-person singular personal pronoun she, and the action it describes (wishing) is ongoing and/or habitual, which calls for the present tense.

If the subject is a noun, the verb also takes the third-person form:

Luna sometimes wishes she had moved to a different neighborhood.

The rest of the conjugations in the simple-present tense do not change at all. They are all the stem of the infinitive to wish, which is the word wish—regardless of person or number:

• I wish
• We wish
• You wish
• They wish

Note that conjugations of regular verbs in the simple-past tense are all identical, regardless of person or number:

• I wished
• We wished
• You wished
• He/she/it wished
• They wished

So the fact that verbs in the third-person singular simple-present tense change form by adding –s makes them unique.

Exceptions to the rule

Irregular verbs

All of the verbs we’ve looked at so far have been regular because when regular verbs are conjugated, they change their forms in predictable ways. There are thousands of regular verbs in the English language, as well as around two hundred irregular verbs. However, almost all of those irregular verbs are irregular only in their simple-past and past-participle forms and thus still form the third-person singular simple present by adding –s.

For example, give is an irregular verb; its simple-past and past-participle conjugations are not gived but rather gave and given, respectively. But in the simple present, give conjugates regularly:

• I give
• We give
• You give
• He/she/it gives
• They give

There are very few verbs that are irregular in the present tense, and it is almost always only in the third-person singular of the simple present that they show that irregularity (in addition to in their simple-past and past-participle forms). The verbs that follow that pattern are to have, to do, and to go—along with some others that have those as roots and are conjugated in the same way as their root, such as undo, redo, forgo, and undergo. Here are how those verbs are conjugated in the simple present:

• I have
• We have
• You have
• He/she/it has
• They have
• I do
• We do
• You do
• He/she/it does
• They do
• I go
• We go
• You go
• He/she/it goes
• They go

As you can see, to have, to do, and to go are all regular in the simple present in their first- and second-person singular and plural forms and their third-person plural forms.

There is just one verb that is irregular in other present-tense forms in addition to the third-person singular, and that is the most irregular verb in the English language: to be.

• I am
• We are
• You are
• He/she/it is
• They are

Singular they subject

There is one circumstance in which regular verbs appearing with third-person singular subjects in the simple-present tense don’t add an –s, and that is when the subject is the gender-neutral third-person singular personal pronoun they:

• They hope their class schedule will be more manageable this semester.
• Rain or shine, they like to go for their daily afternoon run.

Like the second-person pronoun, you, they has the same form whether singular or plural and is always used with plural verb forms, even when singular:

• You seem to be the best whistler here.
• You two seem to be the best whistlers here.
• They feel like the luckiest person in the world.
• They both feel like the luckiest people in the world.

Subject-verb agreement

As we discussed above, one of the purposes of verb conjugation is to reinforce information about the subject of a sentence. This is what we mean when we talk about subject-verb agreement; the verb in a sentence must match the subject in both person and number.

Here are a few more examples of sentences using third-person singular simple-present conjugations of regular verbs. In these examples, both the subject and the verb are in bold so you can clearly see how they agree in person and in number:

• The list I’m looking at includes both names and addresses.
• Canada observes Boxing Day as a public holiday every December 26.
• She removes her shoes before going into her apartment.

Notice that all three of the subjects—the common noun list, the proper noun Canada, and the personal pronoun she—are singular and in the third person. Although nouns in English aren’t generally considered to have the grammatical property of person in the way that pronouns do, they automatically refer to someone or something other than the speaker (I, the first person) or the person being spoken to (you, the second person), so they receive third-person verbs just like the third-person pronouns (he, she, they, and it) do.

A mistake to avoid

If you look back through the example sentences in this post, you’ll notice that all the nouns appearing as subjects with verbs that end in s don’t themselves end in s. This is the only tricky thing to learn about using verbs ending in s: They have to be in agreement with their subjects, but when they are in agreement with their subjects and their subjects are nouns, their endings don’t match those of their subjects.

While regular verbs add –s to their stems to form their third-person singular simple-present tense, the regular singular nouns that go with them do not add an –s; such nouns only add an s to their singular forms to become plural:

• Singular: The store opens at ten o’clock.
• Plural: Both stores open at ten o’clock.
• Singular: The hen pecks intently at the corncob.
• Plural: The hens peck intently at the corncob.

Try remembering it this way: To be in agreement, the subject and verb must behave oppositely.

Examples of verbs with –s

There are thousands of regular verbs in English, which means there are thousands of verbs that form the third-person singular simple-present tense by adding –s to their infinitive stem. Here are several more examples:

• to disappear → disappears
• to float → floats
• to request → requests
• to fasten → fastens
• to wait → waits
• to care → cares
• to protect → protects

Verbs with –s FAQs

What are verbs that end in s?

Verbs with an –s ending are regular verbs conjugated in the third-person singular-present tense.

What is verb conjugation, and how does it relate to verbs that end in s?

Verb conjugation is the way that verbs change form based on their properties. Number, person, and tense are three of the properties that verbs express through their conjugation, and a verb with an –s indicates that it is singular in number, third person, and present tense.

The post What Are Verbs With “S”? appeared first on Grammarly Blog.

The eight parts of speech in English grammar are like ingredients in a recipe—each plays a role in creating a well-composed finished product, but only if you know how to use them properly. Incorrectly using a part of speech can make your sentence grammatically incorrect or hard to understand, just as misusing an ingredient can change your dish’s taste.

This includes the word was, an important word when writing sentences in the past tense. Consider this blog post a cookbook that explains what part of speech the word was is, how verbs like it are used in sentence construction, and how to use it in a sentence.

What part of speech is the word was?

The word was is a verb, which is a part of speech that describes an action or a state of being. It’s the past tense first- and third-person singular of “to be,” which means “to take place or occur.” Was is used to express an action done in the past. The word derives from the Middle English word wæs.

The basics of parts of speech

There are eight parts of speech in the English language.

Nouns: A noun is a person, place, concept, or thing. There are two types: common nouns and proper nouns. Common nouns are general things, like cities, and proper nouns are specific things, like San Diego.

Pronouns: Pronouns are words used to replace specific nouns that are already known to the reader. Instead of repeating “Maria” in every sentence, you can use she or her.

Adjectives: Adjectives are words that describe nouns, such as tall (describing a person) or large (describing a place).

Verbs: Verbs describe an action or state of being, such as run and agree.

Adverbs: Adverbs modify verbs (“He ran slowly”), adjectives (“She’s incredibly intelligent”), and other adverbs (“They’re almost always late”).

Prepositions: Prepositions tell you the relationship between a sentence’s other words, and they often tell you where or when something happened: “The dog is in the backyard.”

Conjunctions: Conjunctions link other words, phrases, or clauses together: “The children went to the park and played tag.”

Articles: Articles tell the reader whether a noun is specific or unspecific. Definite articles like the are used with specific nouns and indefinite articles like an are used before unspecific nouns.

A complete sentence requires only two parts of speech: a noun and a verb. A verb is an action, and the noun is the subject doing the action.

Was: Identifying its part of speech

The word was is a type of verb known as an auxiliary verb, or helper verb, which modifies a main verb’s tense, voice, or mood. A main verb describes the primary action occurring in a sentence.

See if you can spot the main verb in this sentence:

“She was shivering because it was cold.”

In this example, shivering is the main verb and the auxiliary verb was tells the reader that the subject had been shivering in the past.

The role of was in sentences

The word was can act as a linking verb, which connects a subject to a subject complement (a word or phrase that describes the sentence’s main subject). Linking verbs don’t express action but rather explain the subject’s state of being. In the case of the word was, it explains that the subject performed an action or had been in a state of being in the past.

“The student was tired because he studied all night for his final exam.”

Here, the linking verb was connects the subject, the student, to the subject complement tired, which describes the subject.

At the same time, was is acting as an auxiliary verb, which modifies the main verb’s tense to be in the simple past tense, meaning the student felt tired in the past.

Here’s another example:

“The student was studying all night.”

Was is an auxiliary verb indicating that the student studied in the past and in this example is being used in the past continuous tense, which describes an action that took place in the past over some time.

Was in conveying time

The word was is the past tense first- and third-person singular of “to be,” meaning “to take place or occur.” In other words, was means something has taken place or occurred in the past.

Verb tense is important in English grammar because it tells the reader when an action was done or at what time a person was in a particular state of being.

Here’s an example:

“He was a good student.”

The word was indicates that the person had been a good student in a class that has occurred. Let’s see what it looks like without the word was.

“He ___ a good student.”

Without the linking verb, it’s unclear whether the subject is a good student in an ongoing class or one that took place in the past. If it was a class taking place in the present tense, you’d use the third-person singular of “to be,” is.

Common mistakes

English language learners may mistake the word was for an adjective or adverb, and it’s not hard to see why. All words describe or modify other words in a sentence, but with practice you can learn to tell which is which.

An adjective describes a noun, whereas an auxiliary verb like the word was indicates when an action, or the main verb, was done.

“The busy businessman was on his phone all night.”

Busy is an adjective describing the businessman, and the word was indicates he was on his phone in the past.

Adverbs, like auxiliary verbs, modify the main verb but are used to describe how an action is being performed, as opposed to the word was, which describes at what time the action is occurring.

“The track star was running quickly to make up for lost time.”

The adverb quickly modifies how the main verb, running, is being done, and the auxiliary verb was tells the reader that running occurred in the past.

Was examples

Here are four examples of how to use the word was in a sentence:

“​​In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God” —John 1:1 (KJV)

“He was supposed to meet us at 6:30 p.m. for dinner.”

“It was the best of times, it was the worst of times . . . ” —Charles Dickens, A Tale of Two Cities

“The pilot said it was one of the roughest flights he’d had in his career.”

Was FAQs

Is was always used as a verb?

Yes, was is always used as a verb. It’s used as an auxiliary verb, also known as a helping verb, to indicate that the main verb occurred in the past, and it’s used as a linking verb to connect the subject with the subject complement.

Can was be used in different tenses?

The word was can be used in the simple past tense to indicate how the sentence’s subject felt at a particular time or in the past continuous tense to describe an action done over some time.

How do I distinguish was as a main verb or an auxiliary verb?

A main verb is the main action taking place in the verb, and an auxiliary verb describes the main verb’s tense, voice, or mood.

Are there any exceptions in the use of was in English sentences?

The word was is used in standard English sentences only as the past tense first- and third-person singular of “to be,” meaning “to occur or take place.” The only exception is in nonstandard English dialects.

The post What Part of Speech Is “Was”? appeared first on Grammarly Blog.

Your palms are sweaty. Your feet are restless. Your mind is racing. It must be test time! Generally, most tests are unpleasant, but grammar tests can be especially difficult because, well, there’s a lot of grammar to remember.

Memorizing countless rules can make grammar test preparation feel overwhelming, so we’re sharing this guide to make the studying smoother and easier. We cover the most common test grammar and their rules to prepare you for whatever questions show up on the exam.

Table of contents

Will this be on the test? Grammar test prep

Parts of speech in grammar

Sentence structure and syntax

Punctuation and capitalization rules

Plural nouns and mass nouns

Pronoun agreement

Modifiers

Verb tenses and forms

Subject-verb agreement

Parallelism

Common grammar mistakes

Test grammar FAQs

Will this be on the test? Grammar test prep

The more important the test, the harder the test grammar. That’s especially true for academic tests like the SAT and ACT and any of the numerous tests for certifying ESL proficiency. It’s typically not revealed what’s on these tests beforehand—that would defeat their purpose. Instead, students must review everything, just in case.

On the bright side, for tests like these, English grammar tends to revolve around the fundamentals. That means if you review the basics below, you should be prepared for most of the questions. We even link to our more detailed guides on each subject so you can review the advanced rules to feel more confident.

Aside from grammar, be sure to also review vocabulary and word choice. These types of tests like to throw difficult words at you, including English idioms and phrasal verbs, which each have unique meanings.

Parts of speech in grammar

Word class, also known as parts of speech, just means the type of word (noun, verb, adjective, etc.). Some words represent things, others represent actions, and some are just for description. It’s important to know parts of speech in grammar because different word classes have different rules.

• Noun—represents people, places, things, and concepts
• Verb—represents actions
• Adjective—describes nouns
• Adverb—describes verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs
• Pronoun—represents other nouns to save time
• Auxiliary verb (helper verb)—a special type of verb used in supportive roles like conjugation
• Preposition—shows relationships of direction, time, location, and space
• Determiner—identifies characteristics of a noun and is necessary in certain grammar situations
• Conjunction—joins together other words, phrases, or clauses
• Interjection—expresses sudden feelings to mimic speech in writing (used informally)

Example: Wow, he has quickly grown into a beautiful and healthy cat!

Sentence structure and syntax

To understand sentence structure, you should first understand clauses. A complete sentence must contain at least one independent clause, which requires a verb and a subject (the noun doing the verb’s action).

A dependent clause, or subordinate clause, also has a subject and a verb, but it also requires a subordinating conjunction and must be placed in the same sentence as an independent clause.

Depending on the number of independent and dependent clauses, a sentence can be one of four types of sentences:

• Simple—one independent clause
• Compound—two or more independent clauses
• Complex—one independent clause; one or more dependent clauses
• Compound-complex—two or more independent clauses; one or more dependent clauses

Clauses must be joined correctly to form complete sentences. While dependent clauses always require subordinating conjunctions, independent clauses use a semicolon or a coordinating conjunction (for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) to connect with each other. Failing to use conjunctions correctly results in a mistake known as a run-on sentence.

You also need to put the words in their correct order, known as syntax. For example, in most sentences the subject comes before the verb and adjectives come before the noun they describe. The rules on word order can get complicated, so read our guide on syntax for more details.

Punctuation and capitalization rules

Punctuation

Punctuation is a necessary part of grammar test preparation and of improving grammar skills in general. Let’s review the common punctuation marks and their jobs.

Capitalization

Likewise, reviewing capitalization rules is another important part of grammar test prep. In English, we capitalize the first letter of the following words:

• The first word in a sentence
• Specific names of people, places, and things (proper nouns)
• The pronoun I
• Nationalities and languages
• Historical eras
• Names of days, months, and holidays
• Initials and acronyms
• Family and job titles when used as names
• Major words in the titles of works (rules vary by style format)

Plural nouns and mass nouns

To show more than one of something, we usually change the singular form of the noun into the plural. In most cases, you simply add an –s at the end of the noun to make it plural, but there are a lot of exceptions. Review our guide on plural nouns to see when to add –es or -ies instead of –s, as well as which nouns remain the same when made plural.

Some special nouns use entirely different words when they’re plural, such as child and children. You can review a list of these in our guide on irregular plural nouns.

Even more confusing, some nouns can’t become plural at all because they represent something uncountable, like water or sand. These are called mass nouns or uncountable nouns, and they’re always used in the singular. Review our guide on mass nouns to learn their rules and see a list of the most common ones.

Pronoun agreement

Pronouns are a special type of noun that represent something that’s already been stated or is already known by the listener/reader.

Abdo went home because he was tired.

In this example, the pronoun he represents Abdo. Using pronouns makes this sentence shorter and easier because you don’t have to say Abdo’s name twice. The word a pronoun replaces is called the antecedent. In this example, Abdo is the antecedent of the pronoun he.

The important thing about pronouns for test grammar is pronoun-antecedent agreement. For most pronouns, that usually means matching the number: Singular nouns use singular pronouns, and plural nouns use plural pronouns.

The trip took a long time, but it was nice.

The trips took a long time, but they were nice.

Personal pronouns also have to match gender identity and grammatical person (the first, second, or third person). They also change based on whether they’re used as a subject or an object.

Subject personal pronouns

Object personal pronouns

Other types of pronouns

Although personal pronouns are the most common type of pronoun, they’re not the only ones. Pronouns are actually pretty diverse, and each has their own distinct rules for usage.

• Relative pronouns—pronouns like that, which, or who used to introduce adjective clauses
• Demonstrative pronouns—pronouns like this, these, or those used to emphasize specific antecedents
• Indefinite pronouns—pronouns like anybody, someone, or nothing used to emphasize general antecedents
• Reflexive pronouns—pronouns like myself, yourself, or themselves used as objects of verbs and prepositions that reflect back to the subject
• Intensive pronouns—reflexive pronouns used to add emphasis
• Possessive pronouns—pronouns like mine, yours, or theirs used to show ownership in the noun form
• Interrogative pronouns—pronouns like what, when, and why used in questions when the antecedent is unknown
• Distributive pronouns—pronouns like each, any, or none used to separate individual antecedents from larger groups or categories
• Reciprocal pronouns—two pronoun phrases, each other and one another, used to show a mutual relationship

Modifiers

Modifiers are words that describe other words, like adjectives, adverbs, and prepositional phrases. Each type of modifier has its own rules for usage—for example, we typically put adjectives in front of the nouns they describe, whereas adverbs often come after the verbs they describe.

In general, it’s best to place a modifier next to the word it describes. Otherwise you might create a misplaced modifier, where the modifier accidentally describes the wrong word.

“One morning I shot an elephant in my pajamas. How he got in my pajamas, I don’t know.” —Groucho Marx

Another common mistake with modifiers is known as the dangling modifier, which is when the modifier describes a word that isn’t in the sentence. Both dangling modifiers and misplaced modifiers can be fixed by revising the sentence so that the modifier is next to the correct word.

Verb tenses and forms

Verbs can be one of the trickiest parts of test grammar because there’s a lot of variation. Every time you use a verb in a sentence, you have to make sure it has the right form, tense, and agreement with the subject (discussed in the next section).

Verb forms

When used as an action, verbs generally have five different verb forms:

1 Root—the standard form of the verb without conjugation; the same as the infinitive form without “to”

2 Third-person singular—verbs with singular subjects use a slightly different form of the verb in the present tense if the subject is also third person; usually you add an –s or –es to the end

3 Past tense—used for actions that have already happened; usually you add –ed or –d to the end

4 Present participle—the root form with –ing at the end, used for the continuous tenses

5 Past participle—used for the perfect tenses; usually the same as the past tense but not always

Although these five forms usually follow the same rules and guidelines, you still have to be careful about irregular verbs that use unique forms, especially for the past tense and participles. Some of the most common verbs in English are irregular, including the most-used verb, be.

Unfortunately, there is no formula for irregular verbs, so you just have to learn each of their forms individually. You can see a complete list in our guide on irregular verbs.

Additionally, verbs can be used as nouns in the form of infinitives (to live) and gerunds (living). Each of these has their own particular rules, so feel free to check out the guides for more information.

Verb tenses

We use verb tenses to show when an action took place. Different conjugations can explain different details about verbs, such as which actions happened first and which actions are still happening.

Typically, verb tenses are separated by when they occur: the past, present, or future. However, verb tenses can get more advanced, explaining ongoing actions or completed past actions that still affect the present. These advanced tenses often use auxiliary verbs like be or have.

• Simple tense—normal actions in the past, present, or future
• Perfect tense [have/has/had + past participle]—past actions that either are still going or otherwise impact the present
• Continuous tense [be + present participle]—ongoing, continuing, or extended actions
• Perfect continuous [have/has/had + be + present participle]—an ongoing action started in the past and still happening later

Stative vs. dynamic verbs

When discussing verb tenses, it’s important to know the difference between stative and dynamic verbs. While dynamic verbs describe regular actions, stative verbs describe the subject’s state of being or feelings, such as what they like or don’t like.

The important part is that stative verbs cannot be used in any of the continuous tenses. Stative verbs are naturally ongoing, so it’s redundant to use them with the continuous tenses, including the perfect continuous. Here’s a list of the most common stative verbs:

• want
• need
• prefer
• love
• hate
• like
• dislike
• seem
• understand
• know
• believe
• involve
• realize

Be careful because some verbs can be either stative or dynamic, depending on how they’re used. These include the perception verbs: see, hear, taste, smell, and feel. If they are used to describe a general state, they are stative; if they describe a specific incident, they are dynamic.

Subject-verb agreement

Aside from using the correct tense, you also have to pay attention to subject-verb agreement. This grammar rule requires that the verb matches the subject in number and person.

I walk.

She walks.

They walk.

With a subject that’s third-person singular like she, we add an -s to the end of the verb walk. In particular, the third-person singular uses a different conjugation than other subjects. Most verbs add –s, –es, or –ies to the end of the verb in the third-person singular. You can read all the rules in detail in our guide on subject-verb agreement.

Be extra careful with irregular verbs, which sometimes have unique forms. For example, the verb have changes to has in the third-person singular.

The verb be has the most irregularities, including the first-person singular am. It’s best to memorize each form to avoid confusion.

Parallelism

Parallelism in grammar means that whenever you have two or more phrases, clauses, or words in a series, they should use the same grammatical structure in the same sentence.

Incorrect: For dinner we like lamb chops and to fry brussels sprouts.

Correct: For dinner we like lamb chops and brussels sprouts.

Correct: For dinner we like to grill lamb chops and fry brussels sprouts.

In the first example, the sentence is confusing and awkward because it mixes nouns and verbs in the same sequence. You need to choose one or the other and be consistent. The next example correctly uses two nouns (we like lamb chops and brussel sprouts), and the last example correctly uses two verbs (we like to grill . . . and fry . . .).

Parallelism applies to many different aspects of grammar. Some of the most common parallelism mistakes involve:

• Nouns and verbs, like the example above
• Verb forms, like gerunds and infinitives
• Noun forms, like singular and plural nouns
• Word class, like adverbs and prepositional phrases

Common grammar mistakes

In addition to the principles above, test grammar often focuses on common grammar mistakes and the most frequent English errors. You can learn more about them in our article about the thirty grammar mistakes writers should avoid, along with their proper solutions. Like this article, our guide on common grammar mistakes also links to more detailed explanations, if you want to learn more advanced rules.

Additionally, academic tests like to ask questions about homophones, words that sound the same but have different meanings and sometimes different spellings. Homophones make up a few of the most common grammar mistakes, such as their/there/they’re and your/you’re, so make sure you review which words mean what.

Test grammar FAQs

What are the most important topics for grammar test preparation?

Most test administrators don’t like to disclose what’s on the test beforehand to ensure the test accurately assesses your skill level. However, some of the most common topics for test grammar include the parts of speech in grammar, sentence structure and syntax, verb tenses and forms, and punctuation and capitalization rules.

What are the best methods for improving grammar skills?

Improving grammar skills begins with understanding the rules and restrictions. Review the fundamentals and pay extra attention to the areas you have difficulty with. After that, practice good grammar by writing—this includes personal writing, such as journals, essays, or creative writing.

What are common grammar mistakes?

Test grammar often covers some of the most common mistakes people make. Aside from the grammar basics, make sure you know how to avoid frequent errors like run-on sentences or misplaced/dangling modifiers. Also be careful with problematic areas like subject-verb agreement, parallelism, and homophones.

The post Test Grammar: Essential English Grammar to Ace Your Next Test appeared first on Grammarly Blog.

Every sentence has to come to an end eventually, and when you’re writing, the way you indicate the end of a sentence is with end punctuation. Each punctuation mark carries its own meaning and tells the reader how to interpret the sentence they’ve just finished reading.

Here we’ll learn about the different types of punctuation you can use to end a sentence so it conveys your intended meaning.

Table of contents

What is end-of-sentence punctuation?

Periods

Question marks

Exclamation points

End punctuation: Less common forms

Tone and end punctuation

Formatting end-of-sentence punctuation

End-of-sentence punctuation FAQs

What is end-of-sentence punctuation?

End-of-sentence punctuation is the punctuation used to conclude a sentence or phrase; it’s how writers let readers know when they’re finishing one sentence and moving on to the next. They are like tiny signposts, guiding the reader through a text, making the connections between words in a sentence and between sentences in a paragraph crystal clear.

There are three main forms of end punctuation: the period, the question mark, and the exclamation point. Periods are used for declarative sentences and imperative sentences; question marks are used for questions (also known as interrogative sentences); and exclamation points are used for exclamations and emphatic imperative sentences.

Periods

The period is used at the end of declarative sentences as well as some imperative sentences. It generally gives a sentence a straightforward, even tone.

Periods for declarative sentences

Declarative sentences are the most common of the four kinds of sentences in English. Every sentence in this post so far—including this one—is declarative. They make statements, and they all end with periods. Here are some examples:

• Space programs have used remote probes to explore Mars since the 1960s.
• Yesterday I ate dinner alone, but the day before I ate with friends.
• The driving directions led me to the wrong address.

Indirect questions are also declarative sentences and thus end in a period:

I wonder whether the packages will get here by tomorrow.

Periods for imperative sentences

Imperative sentences are used to express commands, requests, instructions, or sometimes permission or invitation. Their verbs are in the imperative mood, and their subject is an implied you that is being addressed directly. Imperative sentences can end with either exclamation points or periods, depending on how much emphasis or urgency the writer wants to impart. Here are some examples of imperative sentences ending in periods:

• Show me what you got at the market today.
• Don’t forget to breathe from your belly when singing.
• Help me remember the name of the babysitter we had when we were little.
• Join us at the beach tomorrow.

Sometimes imperative sentences can come across as abrupt or curt; adding the word please can soften that impression:

Please take your shoes off before you come in.

Question marks

Question marks come at the ends of interrogative sentences, also known as direct questions. They indicate that the writer or speaker is being inquisitive, asking someone something specific, making a request, or raising a rhetorical question:

• Would you rather eat here or go to a restaurant?
• Did the people who originally lived on this land grow crops?
• Would you mind getting that book down for me?
• How old are their siblings?
• Who wouldn’t want to have a best friend like Jia?

Exclamation points

Exclamation points punctuate exclamatory phrases and sentences. These include exclamations, forceful imperative sentences, and declarations that carry strong emphasis. Exclamation points help express vehemence, urgency, and heightened emotion. They give writing a casual, conversational tone and should be used sparingly if you want them to retain their potency. In formal academic or business writing, they are often best avoided altogether.

Exclamation points for exclamations

Exclamations are sudden expressions of surprise or another strong reaction. When interjections stand alone, they are followed by an exclamation point:

• Oh, no!
• Hey!
• Indeed!

Exclamations can also appear in the form of sentences that begin with what or how or use the same kind of inverted word order that an interrogative sentence often does:

• What a day I’ve had!
• How kind it was of them to return the wallet!
• Isn’t that something!

Often exclamations using the what or how construction leave the subject and verb understood:

• What a day!
• How kind of them to return the wallet!

Exclamation points for imperative sentences

When an order or instruction in the form of an imperative sentence is delivered with particular urgency or force, it is indicated by ending the sentence with an exclamation point:

• Give me the keys now!
• Look out for that car!
• Get out of the way!

Exclamation points for emphatic statements

Sometimes a sentence with a construction that would be declarative if it ended with a period ends with an exclamation point instead to show that it is being delivered with force or excitement:

• The storm is coming very soon!
• We’ve just received new and troubling information!
• I can’t wait to see you next weekend!

In addition to being used as stand-alones with exclamation points, interjections are also sometimes used to begin a statement that ends with an exclamation point:

• Wow, they really didn’t see that coming!
• Gosh, that was an amazing football game!
• Yikes, it’s so much later than I thought!

End punctuation: Less common forms

Ellipses

In informal writing, ellipses are sometimes used at the end of a sentence, either to indicate that a speaker is trailing off or to give the sentence a hesitant, melancholy, or low-energy tone:

• They asked me about my last job, and I wasn’t sure what to say . . .
• Felix isn’t sure whether he is coming to the convention . . .
• This has been such a gray, uninspiring day . . .

Question mark with exclamation point/Interrobang

Often in speech, a regular or rhetorical question is asked in a tone of excitement, disbelief, or confusion. In casual writing, that tone can be indicated by using both a question mark and an exclamation point at the end of the sentence:

• What on earth were you thinking?!
• We get to go on a field trip tomorrow?!
• How am I supposed to know the answer to that?!

As long as there has been printing, there have been attempts to introduce new forms of end punctuation into the English language, and one of the most successful of these was the interrobang (‽), which superimposes the question mark on the exclamation point. It is meant to be a more elegant form of punctuation for questions that require a tone of surprise and doubt.

The interrobang is not commonly used—we mostly write the combined question mark and exclamation point when we want to show that a question is being asked with surprise or doubt.

Irony marks

A tone of verbal irony can be particularly hard to make clear in writing, and as a result, many new end-of-sentence punctuation marks have been suggested over the centuries to show that a sentence is meant to be read as sarcastic or otherwise verbally ironic—meaning its actual meaning is at odds with its literal one. However, none of these marks so far have been widely accepted by mainstream writers, readers, or publishers.

Tone and end punctuation

As we discussed above, the punctuation at the end of a sentence imparts a certain tone to the sentence.

Declarative sentences, which always end with periods, have an even, matter-of-fact tone. When an imperative sentence ends in a period, it has a tone of polite request or calm demand. Interrogative sentences, which end in question marks, have an inquiring or requesting tone. Exclamations, which end in exclamation points, have an emphatic, excited, or otherwise emotionally heightened tone. And imperative sentences ending in exclamation points have a more demanding, urgent, or excited tone.

To demonstrate the way punctuation does this, here are three similar sentences with the three different forms of end punctuation; notice the differences in tone:

• I need you to take a look at this.
• Look at this.
• Would you mind taking a look at this?
• Look at this!
• Would you look at this!

Formatting end-of-sentence punctuation

There are a few things to keep in mind when formatting punctuation marks at the ends of sentences:

• There should always be one space, not two, after an end-of-sentence punctuation mark.
• When a sentence ends with an abbreviation that itself ends with a period, you don’t add another period to end the sentence (We need papers, pens, stamps, etc., not We need papers, pens, stamps, etc..).
• The question of whether to bold or italicize an end punctuation mark based on the way the surrounding copy is formatted is a matter of publishing style; different style guides have different recommendations. If you’re writing for an outlet or a class that uses a specific style guide, refer to that guide. If not, choose a formatting style and apply it consistently.

End-of-sentence punctuation FAQs

What are the three main forms of end-of-sentence punctuation?

The three main forms of end-of-sentence punctuation are the period, the question mark, and the exclamation point.

What are some examples of less common end punctuation marks?

In casual writing, sentences sometimes end with an ellipsis, which can indicate trailing off or uncertainty, or with a question mark and an exclamation point together, which makes the sentence read as a surprised or disbelieving question.

There is also the interrobang, which combines the question mark and the exclamation point into one punctuation mark, and several marks that have been proposed throughout history to indicate verbal irony. However, none of these are in common usage today.

How does end punctuation affect the tone of my sentence?

Periods often finish declarative sentences, giving them an even, matter-of-fact tone.

Question marks finish interrogative sentences, which have an inquiring or requesting tone. Exclamations, which end in exclamation points, have an emphatic, excited, or otherwise emotionally heightened tone.

Should I type two spaces after a closing punctuation mark?

No. The space between sentences should always be a single one, not a double one.

The post Mastering End-of-Sentence Punctuation: Periods, Question Marks, Exclamation Points, and More appeared first on Grammarly Blog.

There are a few “rules” of grammar that aren’t actually rules or, at any rate, rules that people like grammarians and linguists can agree on. These scenarios show that the standards and norms around language can be inconsistent and often confusing.

One classic example of these non-rule rules is the common advice that infinitives shouldn’t be split—meaning no words should come between the to preceding an infinitive verb and the verb itself. In fact, it’s now widely acknowledged that there’s nothing grammatically incorrect about a split infinitive. Let’s not be afraid to boldly go where many have been told not to go before.

What is a split infinitive?

An infinitive is the root form of a verb, which is the way it appears without any of the changes that it can make to show properties (such as voice, mood, tense, person, and number). It’s also the form of a verb that can appear after the word to: to be, to have.

When we refer to an infinitive as being “split,” we mean that an adverb or adverb phrase is placed between the to and the principal verb in a sentence, as in these examples:

She seems to often be up and about early in the morning.

Wen decided to gradually decrease the amount of time they spent on their phone every day.

Is it OK to use split infinitives?

The short answer to the question of whether it’s OK to use split infinitives is yes. Most usage experts today agree that there is no grammatical objection to the split infinitive and that there are quite a few circumstances in which splitting an infinitive can be preferable to leaving it intact.

Reasons to split an infinitive

Meaning

It’s generally preferable to place an adverb as close as possible to the verb it is modifying, and sometimes misplacing it can really change the meaning of a sentence. Compare the following two examples—the first has the infinitive split by the adverb always, and the second is rewritten in a way that doesn’t split the infinitive:

I was taught to always clean up after myself.

I was taught always to clean up after myself.

In the second sentence, the infinitive to clean up is not split. However, the placement of always after the verb phrase was taught makes the meaning ambiguous—the sentence could be read as saying that the teaching always happened rather than that the lesson was to always clean up.

There are certain constructions whose meanings are absolutely reliant on an infinitive being split. Consider this sentence:

The company had intended to more than double its output that quarter.

It couldn’t be rewritten as “The company had intended more than to double its output” or as “The company had intended to double more than its output”—neither of those versions makes any sense.

Natural rhythm and emphasis

Sometimes, even when a sentence could be rewritten to avoid splitting an infinitive without its meaning being obscured, the result sounds awkward, unnatural, or like the emphasis is in the wrong place. In those cases, it generally makes sense to split the infinitive rather than sacrifice the gracefulness of your language. Here are some examples of sentences that would lose some naturalness or emphasis without their split infinitives. Try to reorganize them with the infinitive unsplit and see if you agree.

I want to really emphasize the importance of the workshop tomorrow.

Paz likes to gradually come to consciousness in the morning rather than being abruptly woken up.

We choose to not mow the lawn in order to attract pollinators.

When not to split an infinitive

Because so many readers, educators, and others still object to split infinitives and find them annoying, it may make sense to avoid them in cases where you don’t have to sacrifice any clarity or elegance to do so. Here are some examples of sentences that can be painlessly rewritten to avoid the split infinitive, with examples of how to do that:

Split: The women proceeded to briefly describe what they’d seen in the city.

Not split: The women proceeded to describe what they’d seen in the city.

Split: I’d love to completely go over the text with you tomorrow.

Not split: I’d love to go over the text with you completely tomorrow.

Just keep in mind that you don’t have to spoil a natural rhythm or muddy your meaning just to appease the anti-splitters.

Examples of split infinitives from pop culture and literature

These are the voyages of the Starship Enterprise. Its five-year mission: to explore strange new worlds, to seek out new life and new civilizations, to boldly go where no man has gone before. —Star Trek

For me I’m sworn to never trust a man— / At least with letters. —Elizabeth Barrett Browning, Aurora Leigh

But still, the policy of the army at that time was not to send—was specifically to not send—women into combat roles —NPR

Nor can I blame thee, though it be my lot / To strongly, wrongly, vainly love thee still. —Lord Byron, “Love and Death”

I knocked gently and rang as quietly as possible, for I feared to disturb Lucy or her mother, and hoped to only bring a servant to the door. —Bram Stoker, Dracula

Split infinitive FAQs

What is an infinitive?

An infinitive is the most basic form of a verb, which is the way it appears without any of the changes that it can make to show properties. It’s also the form of a verb that can appear after the word to.

What is a split infinitive?

A split infinitive is an infinitive that has an adverb or adverb phrase appearing between the to and the principal verb.

Is the use of split infinitives grammatically incorrect?

Though many people have been taught that using a split infinitive is grammatically incorrect, that idea has little basis in historical usage guides, and most usage experts today agree that there is no grammatical objection to the practice. Often, splitting an infinitive is clearer or more graceful than not splitting it.

The post What Are Split Infinitives? Meaning and Examples appeared first on Grammarly Blog.

Knowing the different kinds of sentences—and how to form them correctly—ensures you can always communicate what you mean and is a huge advantage in communication. It’s also crucial when writing to change up the types of sentences you use to keep things fresh. That’s why understanding the types of sentences can make a big difference.

In this article, we discuss eight types of sentences: four kinds of sentences according to function and four types of sentences according to structure. We explain the grammar rules for each sentence type and how to use them so you’ll be aware of all your choices when composing a new sentence.

How many types of sentences are there?

Generally, types of sentences are categorized by function and structure. There are four types of sentences based on function, such as questions and commands. There are also four types of sentences based on sentence structure, such as simple and complex. Remember that these categories are not mutually exclusive; for example, a question that’s a sentence can also be complex..

In this article, we discuss all eight types of sentences, divided into categories. Additionally, there is a special type of complex sentence, the conditional sentence, so some believe there are five types of sentences based on structure. You can read all about conditional sentences here, but we won’t discuss them in this article.

4 types of sentences according to function

There are four kinds of sentences based on their function, such as making a statement or asking a question. These kinds of sentences are usually distinguished by their end of sentence punctuation, whether a period, question mark, or exclamation mark. We discuss these kinds of sentences in detail below, but here’s a short list:

• declarative
• interrogative
• imperative
• exclamatory

1 Declarative sentences

Declarative sentences are a good place to start because they’re the standard. Essentially, a declarative sentence is a simple statement used to communicate a fact, an opinion, an observation, or an explanation.

Declarative sentences always end in a period.

Declarative sentence examples

• Bears don’t eat when they hibernate.
• He didn’t like the movie as much as his partner did.
• In my opinion, James Joyce’s Ulysses is too long.

2 Interrogative sentences

Questions are known formally as interrogative sentences. These sentences request more information in the form of answers, usually to confirm something or fill in missing information. Interrogative sentences can be tricky because they sometimes require putting the verb before the subject or using an auxiliary verb like do.

Interrogative sentences end with a question mark.

Interrogative sentence examples

• What is your next class?
• Did you see the fireworks last night?
• We’re going in the right direction, aren’t we?

3 Imperative sentences

Imperative sentences are commands, instructions, or advice you give to others to tell them what to do. In imperative sentences, the subject is often assumed. It’s usually obvious that the subject is whomever the sentence is directed at, so the subject can be dropped and the reader can assume the missing subject is you.

Imperative sentences usually end in a period, but they can also use an exclamation point if they’re emphatic.

Imperative sentence examples

• Sweep the floor before you mop it.
• Please type these notes and then email me a copy.
• Don’t hang up!

4 Exclamatory sentences

Usually, exclamatory sentences behave just like declarative sentences, except with more emotion or urgency. Exclamatory sentences also include interjections like “Ouch!” or “Yippee!” to convey sudden emotion.

We show this extra emotion with an exclamation mark, also known as an exclamation point, at the end of the sentence. Consider the difference between these two sentences:

• I ate a snail.
• I ate a snail!

The first is a bland statement, communicating a fact. The second has an emotional connotation as if the speaker is shocked, proud, or disgusted—emotions that don’t exist in the first sentence.

Exclamatory sentence examples

• Myra had the baby!
• Thanks! You saved our wedding!
• Yikes! That’s a giant spider!

4 types of sentences according to structure

Based on the number and types of clauses, a sentence can be one of four types. It’s important to understand the difference between independent and dependent clauses, as these types of clauses define the kind of sentence structure. We go into the details of each type below, but here’s a quick list:

• simple
• compound
• complex
• compound-complex

1 Simple sentences

Simple sentences are just like the name says—simple. They contain one independent clause. Be careful, though, because independent clauses can sometimes have multiple subjects or predicates.

Simple sentence examples

• Today is my only day off this week.
• Who sings “I Remember Everything”?
• Khalid and I play soccer together.

2 Compound sentences

Unlike simple sentences, compound sentences contain more than one independent clause. The independent clauses are joined either by a semicolon ( ; ) or by a coordinating conjunction. You might recognize coordinating conjunctions as the FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, and so.

Compound sentence examples

• We wanted to eat fast food, but our parents made dinner instead.
• My cat sleeps on the couch during the day, and my dog sleeps on it at night.
• The lightning flashed; the thunder roared.

3 Complex sentences

Complex sentences can get a little confusing because they use a subordinate clause, a special type of clause that contains a subject and a predicate but cannot be used alone. A subordinate clause must combine with an independent clause in the same sentence. They are sometimes called dependent clauses because they depend on another clause to make a complete sentence.

Subordinate clauses and complex sentences can be identified by the use of a subordinating conjunction like because, while, or if. Use a comma to separate the clauses only if the subordinating clause comes first.

Complex sentence examples

• The marching band paraded through the street while I was sleeping.
• When I was your age, we used smoke signals instead of texts.
• I’ll have that if you’re not going to eat it.

4 Compound-complex sentences

As the name suggests, compound-complex sentences are both compound and complex at the same time. In other words, they contain a subordinating clause and more than one independent clause.

Compound-complex sentence examples

• Say goodbye to grandma, and then we’ll leave before it starts snowing.
• Hollywood is making my favorite game into a movie because of the fan support, but it will be rated PG-13.
• If the bees die out, many plants will stop reproducing and ecosystems will collapse.

Types of sentences FAQs

How many types of sentences are there?

Generally, types of sentences are categorized by function and structure. There are four types of sentences based on function, such as questions and commands. There are also four types of sentences based on sentence structure, such as simple and complex.

What are the 4 types of sentences according to function?

The four types of sentences according to function are declarative (statements), interrogative (questions), imperative (commands), and exclamatory (interjections and emotional statements).

What are the 4 types of sentences according to structure?

The four types of sentences according to structure are simple (one independent clause), compound (more than one independent clause), complex (a subordinating clause and one independent clause), and compound-complex (a subordinating clause and more than one independent clause).

The post 4 Types of Sentences to Know appeared first on Grammarly Blog.

Homonyms are one thing that can make English tricky. They aren’t limited to English—just about every language has them, and in every language that features them, homonyms are defined as the same word with different meanings.

What is the same word with a different meaning?

Homonyms are defined as one of two or more words that are spelled and pronounced alike but have different meanings. When two words with different meanings are spelled the same way, pronounced the same way, or both, they are known as homonyms.

Think about the word train. It could be:

• A noun that describes a locomotive that transports passengers and/or freight
• A verb that describes the process of learning skills through instruction and practice

Both uses of train are homonyms (pronounced haa–muh–nims). With homonyms, the words are technically considered two distinct words that happen to be spelled and/or pronounced the same way—rather than a single word that has different meanings. Put a different way, the noun train is a homonym of the verb train.

Homonyms are not limited to having only two meanings. Some words have long lists of homonyms. One example is the word spring, which can be:

• A noun that names the season that follows winter and precedes summer
  • I plant flowers every spring.
• A verb that describes the action of suddenly jolting forward
  • They watched the frog spring out of the box.
• A verb that describes paying for something out of the ordinary, often as a gift
  • I didn’t expect him to spring for a new laptop.
• A noun that describes a metal coil used to exert tension or absorb shock
  • She has to replace a spring on her bicycle.
• A noun that describes an origination point
  • Our school is a spring of creativity.
• A verb that describes an origination
  • Ingenuity springs from challenging circumstances.
• A noun that describes an underground water source
  • The region is known for its numerous hot springs.

What are homophones and homographs?

Homophones and homographs are two subtypes of homonyms. Although all three —homonyms, homophones, and homographs—refer to words with shared sounds or shared spellings or both, there are a few key differences between them.

Homophones are pairs and groups of words that are pronounced the same way but have different definitions. Sometimes they are spelled differently, and sometimes they are spelled the same. The defining trait for homophones is that they are pronounced the same. Here are a few homophone examples:

• Aloud and allowed
• Week and weak
• Read and reed
• Sweet and suite
• There, their, and they’re
• To, two, and too
• Palate and palette

Homographs are words that are spelled the same but have different meanings. They are sometimes pronounced differently and sometimes pronounced the same. Take a look at these homograph examples:

• Desert, a noun with emphasis on the first syllable, is an arid landscape characterized by a lack of vegetation.
• Desert is a verb with emphasis on the second syllable that means “to abandon something or someone in a disloyal manner.”
• Close, an adjective that rhymes with dose, describes a nearby object or event.
• Close, a verb that rhymes with nose, means “to shut something, often a door or lid.”

How can you tell homonyms apart?

Because homonyms are spelled the same or pronounced the same or both, it can be easy to get confused when you read them in text or hear them spoken aloud. So how can you determine which word a speaker or writer meant?

The answer is context clues.

In most cases, homonyms’ definitions are very different from each other. By understanding a sentence’s meaning, the correct word often becomes obvious. Take a look at this example:

She sent her girlfriend a rose.

Although the word rose can mean either a type of flower or the past tense of rise, this sentence’s context makes it clear that the rose in question is a flower. When you’re using context clues to understand a word’s meaning, it can be helpful to determine which part of speech the unknown word is. In our example sentence, we can safely assume the word rose is a noun because it wouldn’t make sense to gift somebody a verb, an adjective, or an adverb.

Looking for the part of speech isn’t always the key to decoding homonyms though. Sometimes homonyms are the same part of speech. For example, trunk refers to an elephant’s facial appendage, while trunk also refers to the rear storage compartment of a car (both are nouns). Take a look at this sentence:

There’s probably water in the trunk.

Did an elephant take up some water in its trunk to drink, or is there water in a car’s trunk? From this sentence alone, we can’t tell. In this case, you’d need to look for context clues in the sentences that come before and after the one that contains the unknown word.

Homonym Examples

Bark: The hard protective covering of a tree (noun) Bark: The sound a dog makes (noun)

Bear: A type of large, omnivorous mammal (noun) Bear: To carry the weight of an object, either literally or figuratively (verb) (Homophone) Bare: Not clothed or covered (adjective)

Bow: A decorative accessory made of ribbon or string (noun) Bow: The portion of a string instrument, such as a cello or violin, that is pulled across the strings to create sound (noun)

Duck: A category of bird species characterized by broad bills, webbed feet, and swimming ability (noun) Duck: To quickly stoop down, often to avoid impact (verb)

Key: Small metal device used to unlock doors and padlocks (noun) Key: Critically important (adjective)

Lead: A toxic, pliable material that was once found in paint and many other products (noun) (Homograph) Lead: To guide another through a path or process (verb)

Left: The opposite direction to right (adjective) Left: Past tense of leave (verb)

Light: A source of glowing or brightness (noun) Light: To illuminate the darkness (verb)

Right: The opposite direction to left (adjective) Right: To restore an object to its upright or otherwise correct position (verb) Right: Morally justified; acceptable (adjective) Right: A moral or legal entitlement (noun)

Rock: To sway an object or person back and forth in a gentle manner (verb) Rock: A solid mineral that composes a large portion of Earth’s surface (noun)

Shoe: Article of protective clothing worn on the feet (noun) (Homophone) Shoo: To brush or cast away (verb)

To: Motion toward an object or a state of being (preposition) (Homophone) Too: To a degree that is higher than legal or acceptable (adverb) Too: In addition to (adverb)

Same word different meaning FAQs

What is the same word with a different meaning?

When two words with different meanings are spelled the same or pronounced the same or both, they’re known as homonyms.

How do you tell the words apart?

To tell the difference between homonyms, use context clues. This includes looking for the part of speech a word appears to be and the other words used in the same sentence.

What are the different kinds of homonyms?

• Homonyms: Words with different meanings that are spelled the same, pronounced the same, or both.
• Homophones: Words with different meanings that are pronounced the same way and may or may not be spelled the same way.
• Homographs: Words with different meanings that are spelled the same way and may or may not be pronounced the same way.

The post Same Word Different Meaning: A Guide to Tell Them Apart appeared first on Grammarly Blog.

The English prepositions in, on, and at are some of the most common words in our language, but they can easily get mixed up. Confusion can arise because not only are they all prepositions of place, but they’re also all prepositions of time; being prepositions of both time and place can make these two-letter words difficult to use.

In this guide, we explain how to use in, on, and at. We discuss the rules for each as prepositions of both time and place and share some examples of in, on, and at sentences. Let’s start with reviewing how English prepositions work in general.

English prepositions: in, on, and at

In English, prepositions are a type of word class that shows relationships between other words in a sentence. Prepositions can describe when something happened (“in the morning”) or where something happened (“at the office”), as well as explain connections (“mother of three puppies”) or give extra details (“a movie with subtitles”).

Prepositions are always followed by a noun. This noun acts as the object of a preposition because it is what the preposition refers to. Combining the preposition and the object of the preposition creates a prepositional phrase, which also includes any adjectives or determiners the noun uses.

For example, the prepositional phrase “behind the tall tree” includes the preposition behind, the object of the preposition tree, the article the, and the adjective tall.

There are four types of prepositions:

• prepositions of time
• prepositions of place
• prepositions of direction
• prepositions of space

What makes in, on, and at challenging is that they are prepositions of both time and place. That means each one has at least two different meanings, and all of those meanings can easily get mixed up. To make things more difficult, in, on, and at are not interchangeable—you have to learn all the usages for each to avoid confusing them.

English preposition: in

In: preposition of time

As a preposition of time, in is used with the following words and concepts:

• instant and moment
• seconds, minutes, and hours
• amounts of days
• months
• seasons
• years
• groups of years (decades, centuries, etc.)
• the past, present, and future
• times of day: morning, afternoon, evening
• night (specific time)

In: preposition of time examples

• in a few moments
• in a couple of minutes
• in five days
• in August
• in the summer
• in 3200 BCE
• in less than a decade
• in the future
• in the evening
• in the middle of the night

In: preposition of place

As a preposition of place, in is used with the following words and elements:

• general locations
• locations within large places like cities, countries, and continents
• class
• the sky and atmosphere
• outer space

In: preposition of place examples

• in the dining room
• in Tanzania
• in my third class
• in the blue sky
• in the farthest reaches of space

English preposition: on

On: preposition of time

As a preposition of time, on is used with the following words and concepts:

• days of the week
• times of day used with days of the week
• yearly events like birthdays and holidays
• specific dates
• weekend (American English)

On: preposition of time examples

• on Tuesday
• on Saturday evening
• on our anniversary
• on Lunar New Year
• on January 19 (on the 19th of January)
• on the weekend

On: preposition of place

As a preposition of place, on is used for the following words and ideas:

• things on the surface of something else (tables, walls, etc.)
• locations near a body of water
• mountains
• floors of a building
• corners
• streets
• planets

On: preposition of place examples

• on the ceiling
• on the Amazon River
• on Mount Hood
• on the fifth floor
• on Main Street
• on Mars

English preposition: at

At: preposition of time

As a preposition of time, at is used for:

• clock times
• mealtimes
• times of day: dawn, dusk
• night (unspecific time)
• weekend (British English)

At: preposition of time examples

• at 8 p.m.
• at dinner
• at dusk
• at night
• at the weekend

At: preposition of place

As a preposition of place, at is used with these categories:

• precise locations
• events
• specific addresses

At: preposition of place examples

• at the dinner table
• at the homecoming dance
• at 720 Main Street

When not to use in, on, or at

Don’t use with next and a time

When using next as an adjective before a time, you can omit in, on, or at. The sentence will work without a preposition of time.

Don’t use the last and a specific time

Similarly, you can also omit in, on, or at when using last as an adjective before a time period, as long as you are talking about a specific time.

However, if you’re using last with an unspecified time, you still need a preposition. Typically, if the phrase with last uses an article or other determiner, it is unspecific and should include in, on, or at.

Keep in mind that the phrase “at last” acts as an adverb, so these rules for prepositions don’t apply to it.

Last night, at our last meeting, we picked a group name at last!

In, on, and at FAQs

What are English prepositions?

In English, prepositions are a type of word class that shows relationships between other words in a sentence. Prepositions can describe when something happened (“in the morning”) or where something happened (“at the office”), as well as explain connections (“mother of three puppies”) or give extra details (“a movie with subtitles”).

What type of prepositions are in, on, and at?

The words in, on, and at are prepositions of both time and place. That means each one has at least two different meanings, and all of those meanings can easily get mixed up.

Can in, on, and at be used interchangeably?

The prepositions in, on, and at are not interchangeable. Each has its own rules and suggested usages. However, sometimes the same words or sentence can use different prepositions, although the meaning will change slightly.

The post English Prepositions: “In,” “On,” and “At” appeared first on Grammarly Blog.

Most of the punctuation marks we know and love have been around for centuries, but can you believe that’s not the case for the wild and whimsical interrobang‽

Invented in 1962, this punctuation mark combines the exclamation mark and the question mark into one fancy doodad. Although it’s lesser known than most punctuation types and not often used, it’s a fun trick you can use to convey a question in an excited and energized way.

But what does the interrobang do? And how can you use it to spice up your writing? Let’s interrogate the interrobang so you can give your writing a little extra flair.

What is an interrobang?

An interrobang [in-TER-eh-bang] is a nonstandard double punctuation mark that combines the functions and glyphs of an exclamation mark (!) and a question mark (?) into one form: ‽. It indicates a sentence that is both a question and an exclamation, expressing surprise or disbelief.

The interrobang gets its name from the punctuation it’s intended to combine—interro is from “interrogation point,” the technical term for question mark, and bang is printers slang for the exclamation mark.

Superimposing both punctuation marks into a single glyph signifies an exclamatory sentence that is a question. This means the interrobang is best used to end a rhetorical question or conclude a simultaneous exclamation and question. It is sometimes called an “interabang” or “exclamation question mark.”

The word interrobang was coined by advertising executive Martin K. Speckter. Frustrated with copywriters’ tendency to combine exclamation and question marks to yield a surprised or rhetorical question, he offered a solution to replace this “ugly, jury-rigged construction,” and the interrobang was born.

You’ve likely come across the improvised punctuation before, written simply as a back-to-back exclamation mark and question mark, like this: !? or ?!

Still, this is the only way to employ the interrobang in everyday writing, as there is no dedicated key for the glyph on standard keyboards. As such, most writers continue to communicate the sentiment the interrobang expresses by using !? or ?! concurrently, just as they did before the mark’s official invention.

When to use an interrobang

Since the interrobang has such a quirky punctuation personality, it can be challenging to know when it’s appropriate to use one. However, if you enjoy using unique and expressive punctuation, this offbeat character has obvious appeal.

The interrobang will always come at the end of a sentence. Most often, interrobangs are used to convey a sense of surprise or disbelief or a combination of both in the form of a question. It adds energy to a question, resulting in either shocked incredulity (“She said what to Martin‽”) or an excited inquiry (“They won a trip to Spain from a radio show‽”).

Still uncertain about when it’s appropriate to use the interrobang? Here are three cases when it makes sense to use this combined character:

1 Rhetorical questions with emphasis: Interrobangs are ideal when you’re asking a rhetorical question that is meant to be particularly emphatic. They can add a visual cue to communicate extra intensity, as in “What were you thinking‽”

2 Combining a question and an exclamation: If a statement is both a question and an exclamation, the interrobang can represent this dual nature, as in “You published a book‽”

3 Expressing strong emotion: Interrobangs are especially appropriate when you want to convey a heightened sense of emotion or astonishment, as in “He really said that about his own child‽”

Although the interrobang is certainly a fun and expressive mark of punctuation, it’s crucial to note that it is not a standardized form, and some style guides and formal scenarios may discourage its use. If you decide to use one, make sure you’re aware of your audience and that it’s apt for the context.

How to include an interrobang

Since the interrobang is not included on standard keyboards, learning how to type one takes a little extra effort. Here are several ways to write or type an interrobang:

Write an interrobang: If you are putting pen to paper, writing an interrobang is easy. First, write a traditional question mark at the end of your sentence. Then, draw a straight line through it to signify the exclamation mark. No second period or point is needed!

Type an interrobang with Google Docs: Under the “Insert” menu select “Special characters” and then search for “interrobang: in the search bar. Click the glyph to insert in your text.

Type an interrobang with Unicode: If you use Unicode (the text-encoding standard where each letter, digit, or symbol is assigned a numeric value), you can easily type interrobangs. Simply use the code U+203D. This can be achieved by pressing the Alt key, then pressing the plus sign (+) key, and typing the code U+203D. Release the Alt key, and your interrobang should appear.

Typean interrobang with the Character Palette in macOS: You can readily find an interrobang symbol on the Character Palette, which is included on macOS. To do so, press the Ctrl key, then press Cmd, and then press the space bar. This will open up a menu with various emojis and symbols. Type “interrobang” into the search box, select the interrobang symbol, and this will add it to your document.

Typing an interrobang without any key code: If you are unable to employ a key code through Unicode or through the macOS Character Palette, you can still include an interrobang by copying and pasting it from another document or web page. Simply highlight the glyph, right-click it, copy it, and then right-click again in your document to paste it.

Interrobang examples

To make things even clearer for you, let’s take a look at several sentence examples where interrobangs are used correctly.

• Henry’s leaving the company after only two months‽
• What do you mean you lost the keys to my apartment‽
• Why on earth would Wendy do that‽
• You’re telling me you’ve never seen an episode of Seinfeld‽
• How could you forget our anniversary‽
• Dad ate the last slice of pizza after I told him I wanted it‽
• You’re really wearing that to the party‽

Interrobang FAQs

What is an interrobang?

An interrobang [in-TER-eh-bang] is a nonstandard double punctuation mark that combines the functions and glyphs of the exclamation mark and question mark into one form: ‽.

When do you use an interrobang?

The interrobang is written as a single character that is used to indicate a sentence is both a question and an exclamation, expressing surprise or disbelief. Appearing at the end of a sentence, interrobangs add energy to a question, expressing either shocked incredulity or an excited inquiry.

How do you type an interrobang?

You can type an interrobang by using the text-encoding standard Unicode, which is built into many computers, or by using the character palette in macOS on your computer, tablet, or phone. You can insert it in Google Docs in the “Special characters” option, or simply copy and paste an interrobang from another document or web page.

The post What Is an Interrobang?! Definition and Examples appeared first on Grammarly Blog.